They primarily burned plant oils or fish oil. Common fuels included:
- Plant oils such as sesame (goma), perilla/egoma (荏胡麻), camellia (tsubaki), and hazel (hari/tsuki) oils. These were preferred in aristocratic homes, temples, and shrines because they burned cleaner with less smoke and odor.
- Fish oils (e.g., from sardines or other fish), which were cheaper and more widely available, especially among commoners, though they smelled stronger and produced more soot.
Lighting typically involved a simple oil dish (tōmyō-zara or similar) with a plant-fiber wick (often from rush/igusa pith or twisted fibers) soaked in the oil and lit. These sat on stands (tōdai, including tall or short variants) indoors. Candles existed but were rare and expensive (early ones sometimes used pine resin or imported beeswax; true Japanese plant-wax candles developed later). Outdoor or temporary lighting often used pine torches or resin-rich wood.
Butter (or ghee-like dairy fats) was not a standard or documented fuel for Japanese lamps in this era. Japan had limited dairy production earlier (some milk products and butter-like items appear in Nara/early Heian court records), but it largely faded by the mid-to-late Heian period due to dietary shifts, and it was never a lighting fuel. Butter lamps are a Tibetan Buddhist tradition (using yak butter), not a Japanese one.
In short, Heian lighting relied on available local vegetable and fish oils, not dairy fats.
**Heian-period Japan (794–1185) relied on open-flame lighting using oil lamps, resinous wood, and limited candles.** Light was dim, flickering, and often smoky by modern standards. Nights were generally dark, with activities centered on daylight; lighting served practical needs in residences, temples, and outdoor settings rather than bright illumination.
### Primary Indoor Lighting: Oil Lamps on Stands (*Tōdai*)
The core technology was a shallow dish (*tōmyō-zara* or *tōsan*) filled with oil, into which a wick was dipped and lit. The dish sat on a stand for height and stability.
- **Wicks**: Typically made from the pith of common rush (*igusa*) stems or twisted plant fibers/paper. Capillary action drew oil up to the flame.
- **Stands**:
- Tall stands (*taka-tōdai* or *kōkei*): Roughly 75–90 cm high for general room lighting in aristocratic *shinden-zukuri* residences.
- Shorter stands (*kiri-tōdai* or *tankei*): Lower height for focused tasks like reading or writing.
- Decorative versions existed for elites, including lacquered or inlaid examples (e.g., mother-of-pearl work seen in temple treasures).
- **Fuels**:
- Preferred by nobility, courts, and temples: Cleaner-burning plant oils such as sesame (*goma*), perilla/egoma (*enomi*), camellia (*tsubaki*), and hazel. These produced less smoke and odor.
- More common/affordable: Fish oils (e.g., from sardines or similar). These were smokier and smellier but widely available, especially near coasts.
- Plant oils were relatively expensive, limiting bright or prolonged indoor lighting mostly to elites and religious sites. Oil had to be topped up regularly, and open flames were vulnerable to drafts.
These oil lamps appear in court diaries, literary references, and illustrated handscrolls of the period. Aristocrats used them for evening poetry composition, reading, or court duties.
### Outdoor, Portable, and Temporary Lighting
- **Pine torches (*taimatsu*)**: Bundles or sticks of resin-rich pine wood. Long-burning and practical for processions, travel, night work, or security. Pine was favored because its resin made it burn brighter and longer than other woods.
- **Bonfires or fire baskets (*kagari-bi*)**: Resinous wood burned in iron baskets or open piles. Used in gardens for night boat outings (a Heian aristocratic pastime), courtyards, ceremonies, and guard posts. These provided stronger light than indoor lamps but were outdoor-oriented.
- Simple oil-soaked wood or paper items (sometimes called *shisoku* in later contexts) also served portable needs.
### Lanterns (*Tōrō*)
Stone, wood, or metal lanterns held oil lamps (or later candles) and protected the flame somewhat.
- **Stone lanterns (*ishi-dōrō*)**: Introduced earlier with Buddhism. In the Heian period they typically stood singly in front of temple halls or shrine structures. Shinto sites adopted them under Buddhist influence.
- **Hanging lanterns (*tsuri-dōrō*)**: Wooden or metal, suspended from eaves, corridors, or ceilings in aristocratic homes and temples. Oil-fueled.
- Placed versions (*oki-dōrō*) also existed.
These were more architectural/ritual than everyday household items for most people.
### Candles
Candles were rare luxury items. Beeswax (*mitsu-rōsoku*) versions had been imported from China with Buddhism (Nara period onward). After official missions to Tang China ended in the late 9th century, imports declined. Local pine-resin candles began appearing by the later Heian period but remained scarce and expensive, mainly for temples or the highest elites. True plant-wax Japanese candles (*wa-rōsoku*, from haze tree) developed much later.
### Social and Practical Context
- **Aristocrats and temples**: Better access to plant oils, decorative stands, and hanging lanterns. Literary culture (e.g., *The Tale of Genji* world) implies evening activities under lamp light. Religious lamp offerings (*tōmyō*) were important in Buddhism.
- **Common people**: Far darker nights. Reliance on hearth fires (*irori*), cheaper fish oils when available, and torches. Widespread household oil lamps were limited by cost.
- Light quality was soft and orange-toned. Smoke and soot were issues (especially with fish oil). Flames extinguished easily in wind, so placement and shielding mattered. No paper-sided *andon* lamps yet—these became common later (Muromachi/Edo periods).
In summary, Heian lighting centered on simple oil-dish lamps on stands for interiors, supplemented by pine torches and bonfires outdoors, with stone/hanging lanterns at religious sites and rare candles for special use. It reflected available natural resources (plant/fish oils, resinous pine) and social hierarchy, producing a dim, intimate atmosphere suited to the period’s aesthetic and practical realities. Later periods (especially Edo) saw greater variety and wider access with *andon*, better candles, and rapeseed oil.
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